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Thursday, June 7, 2012

the students’ reading ability improvement by using context clues


CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A.    Background of the Study
In 2004 curriculum or competence based on curriculum, it’s stated that learning English in Senior High School is directed towards mastery of English skill consisting of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Besides that, students are expected to be able to read text book written in English because English is a foreign language for Indonesian students.
The reason for teaching reading to the students is because it belongs to the basic language skills in English, just as important as speaking, listening, and writing. Besides, reading is closely related with other subjects. Most of the materials given by the teacher (in English or other subjects) are presented in written form, for example in handbook, LKS, et cetera. It means that to understand the materials, the students must have the ability to look at and get the meaning of written text, that is called reading skill. Because of that, reading is very important to be taught to the students.
Relates to the explanation above, Nunan (2003, p.68) states that reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. While, McWhorter (2004, p.2) defines that reading is thinking. She also says that reading is an active process of identifying important ideas and comparing, evaluating, and applying them.
Based the theories above, teaching reading is not always run well because there are many factors that cause the students’ difficulties in teaching. One of them is the method given by the teacher and evitable teaching English as a foreign language requires the use of effective learning method.  Richards and Rodgers (as cited in Brown, 1994) state that method is an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice.” Furthermore they state that virtually all language teaching methods make the oversimplified assumption that what teachers do in the classroom can be conventionalized into a set of procedures that fits all contexts. It means that a set of procedures or the techniques in teaching have an influence to the student’s learning result.
According to the observation in the classroom and the interview with the English teacher and the students, the present researcher found that the students' reading skill of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year 2011/2012 is still low. They still have difficulties in understanding the text. The texts which are taught in the first grade of Senior High School are report, narrative, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, and spoof. They have difficulties in understanding the characteristics of the text including the social function, generic structure, and language features. The generic structure includes finding detail information and determining the parts of the text. While, the language features included vocabulary, finding references, and understanding the tenses. Such a phenomenon, it is necessary to use an appropriate method to enhance students’ reading ability, in this case is context clues.
Eanes (1997, p.338) defines that context clues refers to the use of surrounding word, sentence, and paragraph meaning to decode words or determine their meanings. Furthermore, Laugheed (1984, p.3) defines that context clues is unfamiliar words can sometimes be understood by context.
In addition, Spears (2000, p.98) states that the word “context” refers to the way a word is used in a particular sentence or passage, while “the clues” are other words or phrases that help reveal the meaning of a word we are unsure and Spears (2000, p.98) also divides the context clues into four general types: synonym, antonym, example, and situation Clues. 
Based on the theories above, the present researcher hopes is by using context clues, students can comprehend reading text easily, for example, they can read efficiently because they do not need to open dictionary in finding unknown or unfamiliar words.
Referring to the above phenomenon, the present researcher intends to investigate about Improving Students’ Reading Ability by Using Context Clues for the Eleventh Graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the School Year of 2011/2012.

B.     Scope of the Study
In order to investigate more deeply, the subjects of the study are limited to the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012 while the object of the study is limited to the improving students’ reading ability by using context clues.

C.    Statement of the Problem
Based on the background of the problems above, the present researcher formulates the problems of this investigation as follows:
1.    What is the students’ reading ability improvement by using context clues for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012?
2.    How the context clues can improve students’ reading ability for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012?
D.    Purpose of the Study
The study aims at investigating the context clues in improving students’ reading ability focusing on the following points.
1.      To describe the students’ reading ability improvement by using context clues for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011 /2012.
2.      To find out how the context clues can improve students’ reading ability for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012?

E.     Significance of the Study
The results of the research are expected to be beneficial for the following people.
1.  School
The results of the research are expected to give some contributions theoretically to develop the improvement of education mainly the principal leadership.
2.  Teacher
The results of the research are useful for the English teacher as information to know his/her students’ reading ability and it can be used as a consideration to improve the teaching quality to increase the students’ reading ability.
3.  Students
The results of the research are useful for the students as information to know their ability, so they can improve it since its importance to be mastered to support the improvement of the English reading skill.
4.      Researcher
The result of this research are expected to become a reference for other researchers who want to conduct the further research on the similar problems, by using another design, such as an experimental research to develop the students’ reading ability.
 
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

A.      The Nature of Reading
In this global era, reading is becoming most important as it cannot be separated from human daily life activity, especially for us as student. Rivers (1981, p.27) supports that reading is the most important activity in any language class, not only as a source of  information, but also as a means of consolidating and extending one’s idea and knowledge of language.
The discussion of the nature of reading in general cannot be separated from different ways of defining the term reading itself. As Nuttal (1983, p.1) states that different people use the term reading in different ways and much confusion can arise from consequent misunderstanding. Meanwhile, Nunan (2003, p.68) states that reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. Regarding to the nature of reading, Mason and Au (1990, p.7) states that reading is the process of constructing meaning from text. Besides, Mikulecky (1990, p.36) defines that reading is a complex behavior which involves conscious and unconscious use of various strategies, including problem solving strategies, to build a model of the meaning which is the writer is assumed to have intended.
Reading is simply one of the many ways in which human beings go about their basic business of making sense of the world (Eskey, 1986 in Simanjuntak, 1988). Also, Strevens (1983, p.189) argue that reading is visual. This implies that reading has something to do with the eyes and printed matters. Also, he claims that reading is an organized and systematic activity dealing with written language that processes beginnings and endings. In addition to that, it also concern with arbitrary and abstract symbols but meaningful.
On other hand, many specialists defined that reading is the process of putting the reader in contact and communication with ideas. As a matter of fact, human beings are preprogrammed to perform language acts, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing (Simanjuntak, 1988). In addition, reading involves interaction between a reader and written language through which the readers tries to reconstruct the writer’s message (Burns, et al, 1996, p.27). It is a process of combining textual information with the information the reader brings to the text. It means that the reader is not simply extracting information from the text, but also activating a range of knowledge in his/her mind. Thus, reading can be viewed as a kind of dialogue between the reader and text. As thinking, reading becomes a form of communication in which the writer expresses his ideas to a reader. From some definitions about the nature of reading above, the researcher concludes that reading is very significance for us as student because it is a process of obtaining knowledge from written text. Moreover, information obtained can be applied in our daily lives. The nature of reading, in this research, is concerned with the study of comprehending reading text, which is intended to convince readers that we can comprehend reading text easily. It can be done by using Context Clues.
1.      The Models of Reading 
The definition of the models of reading process often describe the act of reading as a communication event between a sender (the writer) and a receiver of information (the reader). Reading models have been developed to describe the way readers use language information to know the meaning from print. Most models may be placed in one of three categories: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models. The brief explanation of each type of reading models as follows.
a.     Bottom-Up Model
In text-based or bottom-up, models of readings focuses on primarily the recognition of letters, sounds, and words, and are most consistent with existing instructional practice in reading (Lipson and Hixson, 1991). More specifically, bottom-up model involves prior knowledge of the language system (i.e., phonology, grammar, and vocabulary). 
This is line with what stated by Nunan (2003, p.70) argues that bottom-up models typically consist of lower-level reading processes, for example, we start with the fundamental basics of  letter and sound recognition, which in turn allows for morpheme  recognition followed by word recognition, building up to the identification of grammatical structures, sentences, and longer text. Letters, letter clusters, words, phrases, sentences, longer text, and finally meaning is the order in achieving comprehension.
b.   Top-Down Model
Besides the bottom-up models, however, there are alternative ways of representing the process of reading. One alternative is top-down model in which the processing the sequence is almost the reverse of that below.
Top-down model involve activation of schematic knowledge and contextual knowledge. Schematic knowledge is generally thought of as two types of prior knowledge: (1) content schemata, i.e., background information on the topic and (2) formal schemata, which consist of knowledge about how discourse is organized with respect to different genres, different topics, or different purposes (e.g., transactional versus interactional), including relevant sociocultural knowledge. While contextual knowledge involves an understanding of the specific reading situation at hand.
 From explanation above, the researcher concludes that top - down model can be used by us seeing the background knowledge of reader itself. This model more focus on efforts the readers in comprehending text through making prediction and thinking language style used by the writer commonly.
c.     Interactive Model
 According to Vacca, et al (1991, p.18) they say that interaction model suggests that the process of reading initiated by formulating hypothesis about meaning and by decoding letters and words. In addition, she assumed that the process of translating printed symbols to meaning involves making use of both prior knowledge and the printed symbols. The process is initiated by making predictions about meaning or decoding graphic symbols.
Obviously, Simanjuntak (1988, p.9) says that interactive model predicts that good readers will not become progressively less concerned with identification, but rather progressively more efficient at it as they develop their interpretive skills.
Now, we can summarize that interactive models of reading is combination of both bottom-up and top-down model assuming that it is synthesized  based on  information provided  simultaneously from several knowledge sources (Stanovich in  Nunan, 2003).
From three of reading models above, this research is much related to top-down and bottom-up models. Bottom-up model is related to Syntactic Clues  because we can conclude that the bottom-up model as a model of reading using general knowledge likes vocabulary, grammar, phonology, etc. Through general knowledge, we are able to comprehend reading text easily.
 While the top-down model is related to Semantic Clues because the meaning of top-down model is a model of reading using prediction. It can be done by our background of knowledge. Through background of knowledge we have, we can predict the meaning of unknown or familiar words.

2.      Tips of Comprehension of Reading
In relation to reading comprehension, Lin Lougheed (1967, p.213) offers a technique for reading any articles or book were efficiently. It is called SQ3R, namely: Survey, Question, Read, Recall, and Review. He further provides the following explanation:
Step I: Survey
On this step we look at the title, subheadings, illustration, and grapes and get the overview of the reading passage. This will help us determine the author’s direction. For example if he is going to write about the world economy. Will he discuss theory? Will he discuss economies from a historical perspective? Or will he discuss it from current perspectives.
Step II: Question
After we survey, we should have a general idea of what a reading passage is about. Now, we have to need a purpose of reading, because when we read with a specific purpose, we will understand and remember more of what we have read as ourselves questions based on our survey and then read to see if we can answer our own questions.
Steps IV: Recall
After we finish the reading, try to answer the questions we ask our selves reading, if we do not have all the answer, scan the reading passage to find them.
Steps V: Review
             Several days after reading passages try to remind us of what reading passage was about. The more frequently we review the reading the larger the information that will stay with us.
In order to be able to catch ideas or massages from a reading passage, we have to try to make ourselves to be a good reader. According to Tarigan, (1986, p.44) of a good reader are as follows:
a.    A good reader understands what he reads. In this case, the reader must have a strong concentration of vocabulary mastery and the ability to respond the organization of the passage.

b.    A good reader knows why he reads. In this case, there are two general objectives, i.e. to seek the information and to enjoy the reading.
c.    A good reader understands what he reads. In this case, the reader must have a strong concentration of vocabulary mastery and the ability to respond the organization of the passage.
d.   A good reader has to master an appropriate seed based on the reading passage.
e.    A good reader has to know about the printed material. In this case the reader must be able to identify which is paperback, magazine, newspaper, etc.
Where the characteristic of a poor reader are stated by Freeman (1979, p.102) as follows:
a.    A failure to adjust reading speed to material
b.    Mouthing the words (Sub vocalization)
c.    Low vocabulary-too many words are unfamiliar
d.   To many eye fixations
e.    Regressive eye fixations (backtracking)
f.     The case may be poor eyesight-see an optician

3.      The Purposes of Reading
Wallace (1996, p.6-7) classifies the purposes of reading based on the personal reasons as follow:
a. Reading for survival
Reading for survival is reading a text that is very crucial for life.
For example a warning signs, an admonition sign, an instruction sign, et cetera. Survival reading serves immediate needs.
b. Reading for learning
        It is expected to be exclusively school–related. Reading is intended to support learning. The reader needs to ‘translate’ the text, literally or metaphorically, to learn vocabulary, to identify ‘useful’ structures or collocations, to use a text as a model for writing and to practice pronunciation. For example one reads a text loudly, then analyzes it and makes the same kind of text.
c. Reading for pleasure
        Reading for pleasure is reading to get happiness. The reader wants to enjoy the sound, and rhythm or rhyme of the text. The text being read is written originally to offer enjoyment. For example read narrative texts.

4.      The Phases of Reading
According to Williams (1999, p.37-39) there are three main phases needed to be followed in reading activity, namely:
a.  Pre-reading
This phase is aimed to introduce and arouse learners’ involvement, interest, and motivation in the topic. In this phase, teachers present activities that activate and build up background knowledge, while at the same time helping with vocabulary development, and trying to arouse learners’ interest.

b. Whilst-reading
The main goals of whilst-reading phase are strategy and skill practice, and linguistic development, as well as helping learners to understand the writer’s purpose, and the text structure and context. Some activities like answering comprehension question, completing diagrams or maps, making lists and taking notes are whilst-reading type work.

5.      The Techniques of Reading
Francoise Grellet (1981, p.4) mentions the main ways of reading as follow:
a. Skimming
Skimming is quickly running one’s eyes over a text to get the gist of it. Skimming is used to gather information quickly. According to Williams, the purpose of skimming is simply to see what a text is about (1999:96). The reader skims in order to satisfy a very general curiosity about a text. It also helps the reader to recognize their thought and specify what information they can get from a book, so that their subsequent reading is more efficient. For example, reading a newspaper (quickly to get general news of the day), business and travel brochures (quickly to get the information).
b. Scanning
Scanning is quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of information. Scanning occurs when a reader goes through a text very quickly in order to find a particular point of information (Williams, 1999, p.100). For example, a conference guide, airplane schedule. Scanning involves these steps:
1) Determine what key word to look for
2) Look quickly through the text for those words
3) When you find each word, read the sentence around it to see if they provide the information being sought.
4) If they do, not read further. If they do not continue scanning.
c. Extensive reading
Extensive reading is reading longer texts, usually for one’s own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding. The text is always to be read for comprehension of main ideas, not for every detail word. For example, reading business books.
d. Intensive reading
Intensive reading is reading shorter texts, to extract specific information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail. In this way, each text is read carefully and thoroughly for maximum comprehension. For example, a contract, a book keeping report.

6.      Techniques of Teaching Reading
In learning English, the students must learn the language skills. Language skills are divided into listening, speaking, reading and writing. These four language skills can be grouped into passive or receptive skills (i.e. reading and listening) and active or productive skills (i.e. speaking and writing) these four language skills become the target of TEFL and TESL.
Among those four language skills, reading is the most important skill in learning a language. Even, reading becomes the goal of learning the foreign language, English for instance.
Teaching reading is not easy as people think. There are some considerations that teacher should pay attention. They are (1) Trying to know the students’ interest, aspirations, and how they learn, (2) Knowing the student’s language level, except for beginner, (3) Giving cultural background, pragmatic, and kinesics use in the target language, (4) Giving a sense of progress to the students, (5) Not criticizing too much on language content, (6) Encouraging spontaneity, (7) Changing the sequence of topics from the text books, (8) Grouping students based on their ability and interest, (9) Creating relevant situations for practice, (10) Introducing language styles (frozen, formal, consultative, casual, intimate) and dialect, and (11) Using small group to maximize students’ involvement (Fachrurrazy, 1993, p.58).
Besides the considerations of teaching reading above, the teacher must know about the characteristics of successful reading class, they are: talking a lot, participating evenly, having high motivation, and using acceptable language level. Relating to talking a lot, a reading class is indicated by most of the period time allotted to the activity is in fact occupied by learners talk. Participating evenly means that a minority of talkative participant does not dominate classroom discussion. Having high motivation means that learners are eager to speak. They are interested in the topics and have something new about it. At last, using acceptable language level is important for the students in order to enable them to express themselves in utterances that are relevant and easily comprehensible to each other.

B.  Definition of Context Clues
Robinson (1976, p.59) asserts that the term Context Clues are used to indicate a vague and general way of searching the words surrounding an unknown word to see if the reader can guess at the meaning. In addition, he states that the use of context clues does not always unlock meaning, particularly when the readers’ experience is not matched to that of the writer, when a piece of writing is poorly organized, and / or when the writing lacks much redundancy. While, Spears (2000, p.98) states that the word Context Clues refers to the way a word is used in a particular sentence or passage that help reveal the meaning of a word we are unsure of.
In similar definition also stated by Eanes (1997, p.338) who defines that Context Clues refer to the use of surrounding word, sentence, and paragraph meaning to decode words or determine their meaning. He also argues that Context Clues may be the most important for two reasons. First, context emphasizes decoding for the purpose of finding meaning. Second, it should be used in conjunction with all the others; if a decoded word does not make sense in context, it probably has not been decoded correctly.
Furthermore, the use of context may well be the major skill which distinguishes connected meaningful reading from reading of word lists (Burns and Schell in Ekwall and Shanker1976, p.155). Besides, Pirozzi (2003, p.5) defines that the context refers to the surrounding words in a sentence that give a word its specific meaning. Thus, we can the context especially Context Clues to help us figure out the meanings of unknown or unfamiliar words without consulting a dictionary. In conclusion, the use of Context Clues can help us in catching meaning of unknown or unfamiliar word. Thus, we are able to comprehend reading text easily.
1.    Types of Context Clues
Robinson (1976, p.60) distinguishes two kinds of Context Clues, they are: Syntactic Clues and Semantic Clues. Syntactic Clues consist of Patterns/Functions of Words, Inflectional Cues and Markers. While Semantic Clues divided into eight, they are: Statement of Meaning, Definition by Example, Definition by Synonym. Definition by Experience, Definition by Description, Definition by Comparison, Definition by Contrast, and Reflection of Intent, Mood, Tone, or Setting. To more completely, it will be explained below.
a.         Syntactic Clues
Burns (1984, p.105) says that Syntactic Clues are contained in the grammar or syntax of our language. Certain types of words appear in certain positions in spoken English sentences. Thus, word order can give readers clues to identify of an unfamiliar word. He also states that Syntactic Clues help them discover that the missing words in sentences through the oral-context activity are nouns, or naming words, and that the missing word is verb, or action word. Syntactic Clues divided into three, they are:

1)    Pattern and Function of Words
Just through conscious awareness of the order of words in sentences and the function of those words, a reader can eliminate a host of improbable meanings of the unknown language unit (Robinson, 1976) E.g.: His truculent criticism of your painting betrayed some jealousy.Let us assume that a given reader understood the message above with the exception of the word truculent. Before attempting to apply any other strategies in figuring out the word, we know that the word is not the name of something (noun or subject) or an action (verb) just by its position in the sentence. By its position it must be describing the subject criticism and hence is an adjective. Now, the choices of meaning have been, at least, grossly delimited.
2)    Inflectional Cues
E.g.: Mrs. Ames scrounged around the empty lot for sharp objects. Some readers have heard the expression “scrounged around” but have never really been certain of its meaning. Before turning to lexical cues in the sentence above, readers already know that the event took place in the past just  by noting the inflectional ending “d” added to scrounge. In addition, through knowledge of sentence patterns, readers conclude that scrounged must be an action (verb) indicating what Mrs. Ames did. Inflectional changes, both external (d, ed, ing, s, etc.) and internal (mouse to mice, etc.), are useful as initial Context Clues in placing limitations on possible choices (Robinson, 1976).

3)    Markers
A small number of words in English have little or no meaning but perform key functions as structure cues (Robinson, p.1976). Markers divided into four, they are:
a. A Noun Marker is usually an article (the, a, an), a cardinal number, or possessive (his, her, its, etc.).
E.g.:  Their centrifugal box produced yarn in ten seconds.
The term “their” above indicates syntactic clues as a noun marker because it includes possessive form from the term “ten”.
b. A Verb Marker (was, had, will, etc.) indicates that a verb follow.
     E.g.:  They were jubilating about his amazing recovery.
     The term “were” includes syntactic clues as a verb marker because it is part of tenses. It is simple past continues tense, which is indicate that an action happened.
c. Phrase Markers (prepositions) are useful in identifying the function of an unknown language unit.
     E.g.: The acts of a government official are subject to judicial review. 
     The term” to” includes syntactic as phrase maker because the term “to” identify the function of unknown language unit likes the term “judicial review”.
d. Clause Markers are frequently quite useful in helping the reader begin to identify the unknown language unit for clause markers often signal specific kinds of meaningful actions. For example, since, when, if, that,because are common clause markers.
     E.g.: Since the water could not permeate the dam, the valley was saved.
     The term “since” includes syntactic clues as clause marker because it is common clause markers. It can help the reader to understand the sentence above seeing correlations between the term “since” and “permeate”.
b.   Semantic Clues
Burns (1984, p.103) asserts that Semantic Clues are clues derived from the meanings of the words, phrases, and sentences surrounding the unknown word. Meanwhile, Robinson (1976, p.62) says that the utilization of Semantic Clues appears to be the best way of understanding an unknown or hazy language unit met within a context. Unless the unit is formally defined within the context, the unlocking of meaning may not be absolutely precise but will usually suffice to enable the reader to decode the writer’s message. When a more precise definition is required, the reader should turn to an external authority source, the dictionary, teacher, etc. It is also necessary to turn to an external source when a careful scrutiny of context does not yield meaning. Occasionally the context can be misleading. Semantic Clues are divided into 8 types:
1.    Statement of Meaning
A forthright statement is frequently employed to elucidate the meaning of a language unit the writers feel might be unknown to the reader. Writers normally reserve such statements of meaning for language units which they consider particularly significant. Occasionally the language unit will be marked with an asterisk or superscript number and formally defined in relation to the context as a footnote or in a glossary (Robinson, 1976). Statements of meaning divided into four, they are:
a. Statement in Parentheses
E.g.: John’s recapitulation (review of the major points on both sides through a brief summary) of the Watergate debate, which finally concluded after three hectic days in civics class, was masterful.
Because the term “recapitulation” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, the writer adds a defining phrase separated from brackets or “( )”. 
b. Statement in Apposition
E.g.: Glandular fever, or infectious mononucleosis, is a serious disease. Because the term “glandular fever” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, the writer adds a defining phrase separated with the term “or”. 
c. Formal Definition
E.g.: A micro pyrometer is an optical instrument to measure the temperature of small glowing bodies. Not all of readers know the meaning of term “micro pyrometer”.  Therefore, the writer explains the meaning of term “micro pyrometer” in detail.
d. Subsequent Statement
E.g.: We must all soon learn how to compute in the metric system, which is used in a large number of countries. It is a decimal system of weights and measures universally used in science.
Because “the metric system” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, the writer adds a defining phrase separated after comma or (,).
2.         Definition by Example
The writers use only examples to clarify a meaning, although more frequently definition by example is used in combination with a statement of meaning (Robinson, 1976). Definition by example divided into two, they are:
a. Example Alone
E.g.: Methadone is an example of a synthetic narcotic drug. Not all of readers know the meaning of term “methadone”. Therefore, the writer gives an example supports term “methadone”. 
b. Statement Example
E.g.: A word is a sound or group of sounds that has meaning and is an independent unit of speech. Thus, th is not a word but the is. To give more explanation to readers, the writer describes the term “word” clearly and gives some examples the term “word” itself.
3.         Definition by Synonym
Robinson (1976, 64) states that a synonym is a word or brief expression close in meaning to the unknown or hazy language unit. Definition by synonym divided into two, they are:
a. After linking verbs
E.g.: Indian paintbrush is a type of showy herb that grows in the southwestern United States To give more explanation to readers, the writer describes the term “indian paintbrush” typing miring and explains the meaning.
b. After the word or
E.g.: Wapiti, or elk, have very large, spreading antlers. Because “wapiti” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, the writer adds a defining phrase separated with the term “or”. And the term “or” used to find out synonym from word before.
4.         Definition by Experience
Comprehending what one reads, to begin with, is largely a function of the experience the reader brings to the printed page; hence, the use of experience as a contextual aid is valuable (Robinson, 1976, p.88). He also says that readers should be encouraged, in the absence of more structured and obvious context clues, to search through their experiential backgrounds for keys that can unlock meaning. Definition by experience divided into three, they are:
a. Life Experience
The life experience clue allows the reader to review his or her own experiences and come up with a reasonable meaning of the unknown language unit (Robinson, 1976. p.88).
E.g.: The basketball game was a fiasco, with our team scoring 21 points to their 104.  Because “fiasco” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, we can guess the meaning of “fiasco” after we know means of next sentence.
b. Vicarious Experience
The vicarious experience clue is similar but the reader reviews knowledge gained through reading and or other media (Robinson,  1976, p.89).
 E.g.: The heart attack victim was resuscitated through the use of mouth-to-mouth breathing. Not all of readers know the meaning of term “resuscitated”. Therefore, the writer gives key word after that term. That is the terms “the use of mouth-to-mouth breathing”.
c. Language Experience
In using language experience, learners can use knowledge of familiar expression to unlock meaning. Or learners can note the words in a series and refer back to the larger concept (Robinson,  1976, p.89).
E.g.: Mr. Baldwin is particularly interested in studying cold-blooded vertebrates called amphibians. This class or group of vertebrates is comprised of frogs, salamanders, and caecilians.
Because “caecilians” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, we can guess the meaning of term “caecilians” using conjunction likes comma, and, etc. It means that the term “caecilians” is part of vertebrates. 
5.         Definition by Description
There is no actual definition of the unknown or hazy language unit, but the description sometimes permits enough definition for clarity (Robinson, 1976, p.93).
E.g.: The griffin was a mythological monster with an eagle’s wings, head, beak, and a lion’s body, legs, and tail.
Because “griffin” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, the writer describes body shape of griffin itself.

6.          Definition by Comparison
Robinson (1976, p.96) conveys that comparison clues are useful for known words or ideas are matched with the unknown language unit. Sometimes figures of speech, particularly similes and metaphors, are keys to unknown units. Thomas and Robinson (1982, p.21) state that when a comparison clue is present, the reader get some suggestion of a new word’s meaning because they compare it with a word or an idea already known:
E.g.: Peggy excels in basketball, photography, and music, and her older brother is even more versatile. Because “versatile” is not likely to be part of the average reader’s vocabulary, we can guess the meaning of this term seeing some examples valuable likes basketball, photography, and music. Thus, the term “versatile” means excels in several fields, not only some examples mentioned above.
7.         Definition by Contrast
In using contrast to get an idea of the meaning of an unknown language unit, the reader may need to refer backward or forward. Sometimes a subsequent contrasting idea will unlock the meaning of a word or phrase skipped temporarily for lack of certainty about it; more frequently, however the reader will find that retrospect is most helpful (Robinson, 1976). At times the contrast will be between two words or
brief expressions (antonyms); at other times contrast is developed by explanation, description, or example.
E.g.: Although Mr. Manson guzzled liquor in great quantities every evening, his sobriety was without question during the business day. The term “although”, which means the same as “whereas”, clearly indicates a contrast. Thus, we can know that the term “guzzled” and “sobriety” is contrast.
8.         Reflection of Intent, Mood, Tone, or Setting
Precise meaning of the unknown language unit rarely results; if the experience of the reader in no way matches that of the writer, the results can be disastrous. And, at times, high-level thinking does intermingle with feelings, especially when the intent being conveyed is rather subtle (Robinson, 1976).
E.g.: The starchiness in his voice and the scowl on his face warned us that father was in a captious mood. Absolutely nothing suited him! Dinner was too late-the meat was too cold-the coffee was too hot! In example above, both the mood and the setting contribute to providing the reader with a reasonable meaning for captious. Distribution of Context Clues explained by Robinson above is different with Spears’s explanation. She states that Context Clues divided into four general types. They are:
a. Synonym Clue
A Synonym Clue is a word that means the same as the one in question, and this type is the easiest to recognize (Spears, 2000).
E.g.: Many underground residents do not consider themselves homeless. They are, as one woman put it,” temporarily without shelter,” and they consider the subterranean chambers of the tunnel a safer housing alternative than city shelters. The word underground and the phrase chambers of the tunnel show us that subterranean also means “underground.” Word analysis in this case helps, as well, since sub- means “under” and terra is the Latin root for “earth.”
b. Antonym Clue
An Antonym Clue is a word that means the opposite of the one you unsure of (Spears, 2000).
E.g.: Scholars have bickered for centuries over how kids accomplish this feat, but most now agree that their brains are wired for the task. Since agree and bicker are opposites, we can easily see that bicker means”
to quarrel.”
c. Example Clue
An example Clue is a particular instance of something may reveal the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
E.g.: Words accrue slowly at first. But around the age of 18 months, children’s abilities explode. Most start acquiring new words at the phenomenal rate of one every two hours. It is not so hard to imagine that an adult might learn one new vocabulary word for every two hours they read, but for an 18-month-old to acquire a new word every two hours does unquestionably seem phenomenal. This word means, then, “extraordinary” or “remarkable” (Spears, 2000).  
d. Situation Clue
Spears (2000, p.100) defines that the situation or circumstance in which the word is used may give us a hint as to its meaning.
E.g.: In Princeton the ants found my larder, where I had jelly and bread and stuff, which was quite a distance from the window. The term a larder is obviously some sort of pantry or cupboard, but this word is incidental and relatively unimportant.

C.   Relevant Study
There is one previous related study concerning the use of Context Clues. It was conducted by Kusumarasdyati (1996) entitled “The Use of Context Clues by the Students of English Department of IKIP Mataram”. ”. In his research, there were two research questions and were formulated as follows: 1) What are kinds of Context Clues in Reading Texts of “BARRON’S TOEFL IBT” book? 2) How are the impacts of the use of Context Clues used in Reading Texts of “BARRON’S TOEFL IBT” book?
Her research design was descriptive qualitative. Her research aimed to investigate kinds of Context Clues using Robinson’s theory based on the textual observation in Reading Texts of “BARRON’S TOEFL IBT”.
Based on the data, she found answering the research questions, she described kinds of context clues in Reading Texts of “Barron’s TOEFL IBT” book. They are Syntactic Clues, Semantic Clues, Synonym Clue, and Antonym Clue. Syntactic Clues consist of Inflectional Cues and Markers, especially a noun marker. While, Semantic Clues consists of statement of meaning, definition by description, definition by experience, and definition by example. A part statement of meaning are found in this research includes subsequent statement and formal definition. Then, definition by experience is found in this research includes vicarious and language experience. The next, definition by example is found in this research includes statement example. The researcher found that there are three syntactic clues in this research. While, there are fifteen in Semantic Clues form. For Synonym Clue, there are six data found. Then, there is one data in Antonym Clue. The impacts of the use of Context Clues used in Reading Texts of “BARRON’S TOEFL IBT” book was the researcher got many lessons during she was doing her research on context clues in Reading Texts of “Barron’s TOEFL IBT” book such as: she could understand deeply about context clues based on Robinson’s and Spear’s theory and found nearly all of kinds of context clues namely: Syntactic Clues, Semantic Clues, Synonym Clue, and Antonym Clue. Therefore, the use of context clues in comprehending the text is very needed to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar and unknown words.
The differences of these studies were viewed from the subject of the study. Kusumarasdyati took subjects based on the “BARRON’S TOEFL IBT” book meanwhile the present researcher uses students for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012.
The similarities of both researches are in investigating the main problem, that is reading and the technique used that is context clues.

C.  Theoretical Framework
In theoretical framework, the present researcher thinks based on the students’ problem in studying English, especially in teaching and learning process, many problems and activities faced by students’ and the teachers. But successful of the students’ in studying English are mostly determined by themselves inside and out side of the school.
Other problems come from the strange of the materials, confused and uninteresting situation when teaching learning process in the classroom. So the teacher’s duty is how to develop the students’ interest in studying English especially in reading. Reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. Regarding to the nature of reading, Mason and Au (1990, p.7) states that reading is the process of constructing meaning from text. So, reading is one of language components that have function to express feelings, opinions, ideas, and emotions. And through context clues as one of the technique is facilitating to teach reading and it hopes are able to overcome the failure of students in studying it. Laugheed (1984, p.3) defines that context clues is unfamiliar words can sometimes be understood by context. In addition, Spears (2000, p.98) states that the word “context” refers to the way a word is used in a particular sentence or passage, while “the clues” are other words or phrases that help reveal the meaning of a word. The present researcher thinks that by using context clues in teaching and learning process, is better to develop students’ reading ability and increasing the students’ achievement in reading ability especially. And practical applications are expected can develop the present researcher view and understanding how to apply teaching and learning of English to increase student’s reading ability.

D.      Action Hypothesis
The hypothesis of the study is formulated as follows: context clues can improve the students’ reading ability for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012.
 
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A.  Research Design
In this study, the present researcher uses classroom action research. Hopkins (1985, p.32) defines action research as about the systematic study of attempts to improve educational practice by groups of participants by means of their own practical actions and by means of their own reflection upon the effects of those actions. It means that action research is a reflection about the teaching practice. It is done by groups of participants. The goal of this research is to improve the educational practice.
Burns (1999, p.30) states that that action research is a self-reflection done by participants to judge their own practices in order to improve it. Here, the participants are not only judge their practices, but also understanding it and the situation in which their practices are carried out.
Based the opinions above, it can be summarized that action research is a systematic self-reflective study undertaken by the researcher that involves the collaboration and cooperation of the researcher, participants, and layman. This study is aimed to overcome the education problems or make a change related to the education problems for improvement.
In this study, the classroom action research that is conducted is an attempt to improve the students’ reading ability by using context clues. This classroom action research is going to be carried out through the collaboration of the researcher and the teacher.

B.  Setting of the Study
This study will be done at the second semester for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year 2011/2012.

C.  Participants of the Study
Participants of this study are the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in the school year of 2011/2012. Here, the present researcher focuses on XI1 which consist of 32 students including 19 girls and 13 boys. 

D.  Action Plan
Burns (1999, p.32) says that action research consists of four essential moments such as planning, action, observation and reflection where the participants in action research undertake to:
1)        Developing a plan of critically informed action to improve what is already happening.
2)        Acting to implement the plan.
3)        Observing the effect of the critically informed action in the contexts in which it occurs, and
4)        Reflecting on these effects as the basis for further planning, subsequent critically informed action and so on through succession of strategy.
Based on the theory above, there are two cycles applied in conducting this study. Adopting from Kemmis and McTaggart (as cited in Burn, 1999, p.32), the following is the figure of step of action research cycle:









Figure 1. Step of Action research
 In this research, the action research will be conducted through two cycles, in which each cycle consisted of four steps, as follows:
1.  Planning
Planning is the first step of research procedures. This activity covers identification of problem. The present researcher and collaborator find a good solution to solve the problem appeared. In this step, the present researcher also prepares the instruments such as materials, syllabus, lesson plan, worksheet, learning scenario, technique and the instrument to observe and evaluate the teaching and learning process.
a.    Syllabus
Syllabus is a set of teaching and learning activity in which contains some materials to teach in a number of meetings. The components of syllabus are Competence Standard (SK), Based Competence (KD), materials, learning activity, indicators, evaluation, time allotment and learning source. The material will be taught in this study is narrative text. Both of cycle I and cycle II are given the same kind of the text, but it differed from the theme and topic of the text.
b.   Lesson Plan
Lesson Plan (RPP) is developed from syllabus as it aimed at teaching and learning process to reach Based Competence (KD). It is arranged in every Based Competence (KD) in one meeting or more. The components are the same as syllabus. However lesson plan is completed with subject identity, method and steps in teaching and learning activity. In this study, the teacher prepares the Lesson Plan (RPP) based on the syllabus and it served a reference as the researcher conducted the study.
c.    Students’ Worksheet (LKS)
It will be given to know students’ achievement of the materials being taught or discussed. It consists of Competence Standard (SK), Based Competence (KD), summary of material, instrument to observe and the questions. The format of the worksheet is available from the present researcher.

2.  Acting
In this activity, the present researcher finds the possible causes of the problem is faced by the students for the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja in reading, then the present researcher and the collaborator act the previous all planning phases. The action is aimed at solving the problems that appeared. In doing this, the teacher and the present researcher played double roles namely a practitioner and researcher.

3.  Observing
Observing is the time of collecting data to supervise to what extent the result of acting achieves the objective after being taught through context clues. The data of students’ achievement are in form of quantitative and the data are gotten from the result of reading tests. And then, teaching and learning process will be observed with observation checklist.

4.  Reflecting
It is the activity of evaluating about the change of students’ success in learning situation and also teacher. In this step, the data obtained from the test and the result of observation are interpreted and analyzed whether the action activity result in the progress, successfulness or unsatisfaction. The analysis is to know the weakness on cycle I. By deep reflection, it can be gained the clear and accurate conclusion. And then the result of reflection is used to determine the next four steps in the second cycle to get the improvement of the action.

5. Revising the plan for further cycle
The activity that will be done is to learn about the result of reflection in the first cycle. If the result of the first cycle is not reached yet, it is necessary to find out the effective improvement of the next steps of the second cycle. In doing this cycle, the activities that will be done is the same as the first cycle: planning, acting, observing and evaluating and reflecting. However, there will be different from the kind of materials and it is to revise the result of reflective action in the first cycle.
To make clearer, the following are the activities that will be done in each phase:
a. Cycle I
1. Planning
a)    Prepare the set of teaching and learning instrument.
b)   Prepare the material in which is needed in teaching and learning process.
c)    Prepare the observation sheet and the instrument used in action phase.
2. Acting
The following is the activities that will be done in action phase:
a)    Write a topic on the blackboard.
b)   Elaborated the objective of teaching and learning.
c)    Ask the students to read and conclude the materials.
d)   Instruct the students to answer whole questions based on the topic is given.
e)    Recapitulate the scores for each student on the black board.
f)    Teacher and students are together to conclude the materials.
3. Observing
In this phase, the present researcher observes the teaching and learning process using observation checklist. He also makes a summary of the result of test performed on the cycle I to make easier in reflection.
4.  Reflecting
In this phase, the present researcher examines and analyzes the result of action as the reference for further action. Also, he determines the solution of the result of action on cycle I. The improvement and revision about the weakness of cycle I is poured in planning action on cycle II.
Cycle II
1.    Planning
The activities are to learn the reflection on cycle I to revise and improve more effectively on cycle II and the activities are prepared essentially the same as planning on cycle I but it different from the materials or sub concepts to study and revise.
a)    Acting
This step will be done on action phase are essentially the same as cycle I but it needs more controlling towards what is designed previously.
b)   Observing
The activities will be implemented are overall analysis and the procedures are the same as cycle I.
c)    Reflecting
In this phase, the activities are the same as cycle I but it is the improvement of cycle I. The present researcher sets the consideration that if the result of reflection is reached the indicator of successful, the action stopped, whereas if it is reached yet, the action will be proceeded to the cycle III.

E.  Collecting Data
1. Instrument of the Study
    In collecting the data, the researcher should have the instrument or the measure device to measure the data. According to Arikunto (2006, p.160) instrument is the device that is used to collect the data. Then, the instrument might be in form of some questions or exercises or other tools that have purposes to measure knowledge, intelligent, achievement and attitude of someone or group of people. Choosing the instruments of data collection depends on the technique of data collection. Thereby, the present researcher uses the data of students’ achievement are taken from the reading test.
Test in this research is carried out into two cycles. There are also tests in each cycle. Test is some questions or exercises and other tools to measure skill, knowledge, intelligent and attitude of someone or group of people (Arikunto, 2006, p.150). Therefore, the present researcher conducts tests in each cycle. In the case, the present researcher takes the score based on the reading test of students to measure the progress.

F.   Technique of Data Collection
In this part, the data are needed as the subject is the eleventh graders of MA NW Kotaraja. The result of the data is in form of quantitative since it is presented to describe results into numerical data and in form of qualitative data by observing the process of teaching and learning process. The followings are two techniques used to collect the data:
a.    Observation
To get the data through observation is conducted by using reading test to the students based on the instrument given by the present researcher. It is used to monitor students’ activities during teaching and learning process in the cycle I and cycle II.
b.    Non-observation
To know the students’ reading achievement, the present researcher conducts test that consists of some questions related to the above planning material of the curriculum standard because the test should be based on the syllabus and lesson plan arranged.
In evaluating the students’ result, the present researcher uses some steps in giving the test:
1)   The present researcher arranges the sets in such way, so that the students not disturb each other.
2)   The present researcher gives set of test and the sheet answer to the students.
3)   The present researcher surveys the students during the completion of the test.
4)   The present researcher asks the students to read precisely and do the test carefully.
5)   The present researcher asks the students to do the test individually.
6)   The present researcher collects all the students’ test.
7)   The present researcher checks the students’ test result.
8)   The present researcher analyzes the obtained data (students’ test result).

G. Technique of Data Analysis
In this part, the researcher discusses about the technique of data description and data analysis.
1. Data Description
In obtaining the data, the researcher uses descriptive statistic. In this case, it covers the pointing of the Ideal Mean Score (MI) and the Ideal Standard Deviation (SDI).And then it is divided from the following formula:
Mean (MI) = 1/2 x (Max. score + Min. score)
Standard Deviation (SDI) = 1/6 x (Max. score – Min. score)
The formula is used to determine the data into high, average, and low category by using the following formula:
Mi + 1 SDI to    Mi + 3 SDI = high
Mi – 1 SDI to    Mi + 1 SDI = average
Mi – 3 SDI to    Mi – 1 SDI = low   
                                                        Nurkencana and Sumartana (1990, p.89)

2.    Data Analysis
Analyzing the data depends on the characteristics of the data itself. In this study, both quantitative and qualitative analyses are used. The data of reading test (quantitative analysis) are investigated through counting the total of average scores of cycle I and cycle II and finding the differences between two cycles, whereas qualitative analysis is gathered through observation. To make clearer, there are two kinds of data to be collected, as follows:
a. Students’ Achievement
This data are analyzed by using descriptive statistic. It is to know the mean and standard deviation. Mean score is analyzed by using the following formula:

 
Where:            
                   = the mean score
                   = the total of students’ score
            n          = the number of students                     (Sudjana, 2004, p.34)
While the standard deviation was analyzed by using:

 
            Where:
            S          = standard deviation
            = the number of deviation                     (Sudjana, 2004, p.35)
And then the researcher determined the indication of successful of the achievement of students’ reading skill in comprehending the materials. It can be optimized by counting the total of average scores that is evaluated as the students’ classical completeness while students’ individual completeness were analyzed through Minimum Completeness Criteria (MCC)/KKM. Santyasa (2007, p.24) says that learning completeness criteria can be used as a successful criterion. In this case, KKM of English language deal with reading skill is 70. Therefore the individual completeness is regarded success if the students get score ≥ 70 (the scores are between 0-100) and the classical completeness is regarded success if the percentage was ≥ 75% of the whole students got score ≥ 70 (the scores are between 0-100).
The following is the formula used to know the indication of successful of classical completeness:

KB = 
KB      =          the successful of learning
Ni        =          the number of students who obtain mark ≥ 60
N         =          the whole number of students
                                                                             (Fathurrahman, 2009, p.46)
b.  Process of Action
            The process of action is analyzed by using qualitative analysis. In this analysis, the data are described descriptively through two ways, those are:
1.    On going analysis
In this part, the researcher analyzes the process of action, observation, and reflection of each cycle by observing the teaching and learning process by using context clues is applied. The researcher analyzes the data without waiting all cycles finished. But the researcher analyzes the data directly when he gets them from the participants of the research problem.
2.    Overall analysis
In this part, the researcher analyzes the data completely in all cycles. He waits the complete data from the participants of the research then all data are collected. In other word, he begin analyzing the complete data of all cycles accurately and precisely after all cycles finished.

1 comment:

  1. Pak, tolong cantumkan referensi dari skripsi di atas. Makasih

    ReplyDelete