CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND HYPOTHESIS
A. Reading of Descriptive Text
1.
Definition
of Reading
Reading is the first
step in acquisition of knowledge. Reading is very important issue which is not
only about enjoyment but also necessity; the basic tool of education and it is
the key to learning in all aspect of live. Cheek (as cited in Desi, 2009).
According to Hornby
(1995, p.96) reading is to look at and understand the meaning of written or
printed words or symbols. It means that the reader must be able to interact
with the reading material, which includes printed words or symbols. Cooper et
al. (as cited in Rina, 2010) states that reading is the process of constructing
meaning from the printed page. It means that the reader relates the clues found
in the text with his/her prior knowledge to form language.
Rudel (as cited in Desi,
2009) states that reading is the act of constructing meaning while interacting
with text, we must use information stored in schemata to understand and
interact with the world around us.
Harmer (1991, p.90), reading is an exercise
dominated by the eyes and the brain. In addition, Tarigan (2008, p.7) states
that reading is a process in which done by reader to get message or information
from the writer through printed media.
Whereas,
Carrel (2000, p.4), reading is not passive, but rather than active process. In
learning English as a second language, reading is an active cognitive process
of interacting with print and monitory comprehension to build up meaning.
English is still a foreign language for Indonesian students. It is
certainly not easy to interpret the meaning an
idea from written texts. To understand a reading text, the students must have a good competence in knowing the meaning
of words, sentences, content and the most
important is to know about the writer’s idea. It
means while the students read a text, they not only know the meaning word by word but also the writer’s idea in the
text.
Based on definition above, the present researcher concludes that
reading is the process of grasp meaning of the content and the writer’s idea
about the topic. Furthermore, grasp means comprehending the reading materials.
Reading comprehension is the ability to understand the idea and information in
the reading texts.
2. Reading Comprehension
The major goal of reading for high school students is
comprehension. Readers’ ability to understand the author’s message is
influenced by their background knowledge to the topic given in the text. It is
stated by Neufeld (2005, p.302), comprehension
is the process of constructing a supportable understanding of a text. He added
comprehension involves two important features: being actively involved with the
text and using appropriate background knowledge to interpret the text.
It means that the reader will reconstruct her or his
background knowledge in understanding the text. Gibbons (1993, p.51) states that reading is the process of
getting meaning from print. It means that reading is an activity to get
information from written text. In this activity, there is interaction between
the author and the writer because the writer delivers her/his idea to the
readers through the texts. The reader can also improve their understanding
through reading activity. In this case, reading is very useful activity that
should be done as a habit for everybody because reading will enlarge their
knowledge about something.
Burnes and Page (as cited in Desi,
2009), state that reading comprehends
written discourse. The readers also need to understand about the materials that
they read because it is one of the purposes of reading activity. In other word,
the readers have to be able to comprehend the written discourse that they read.
If they can understand the text, it means that they can comprehend the text.
Burnes and Page (as
cited in Desi, 2009) also point out that to understand or
remember what is read, the child must be able to relate new information to the
previous knowledge. It means that the knowledge that is had by the readers
influence the ability of the readers in comprehending what they read. The
readers have to be able to use their prior knowledge in order to help them to
comprehend the texts that they read. If they do not have background knowledge
or information about the materials that they read, they will face some
difficulties in understanding the texts or they have to work hard to understand
it.
Gibbons (1993, p.52) states
that readers bring their own background knowledge of the ‘field’, or topic, and
their understanding of language system itself. On the other word, the prior
knowledge had by the readers is an important tool that can help the readers in
comprehending the reading materials. It will guide them to have better
understanding about something, so that reading activity can improve their
knowledge because reading can give many advantages. The more people read, the
more they will get.
There is also relationship between the knowledge that
students have and their ability in comprehending the text. The readers can use
their prior knowledge to guess about the materials that they will read, so it
will give contribution to the readers’ achievement in reading. At least, it can
give general description about something on the texts or reading materials.
Furthermore, King
and Stanly (as cited in Desi, 2009) state that reading has five
components contained in reading texts, which are appropriate with the junior senior
high school curriculum, they are:
a.
Finding factual information
Factual information
requires readers to scan specific details. The factual information questions
are generally prepared for students and those which appear with WH question
word. There are many types of questions; reason, purpose, result, time,
comparison, etc in which of the answer can be found in the text.
b.
Finding main ideas
Recognition of the main idea
of a paragraph is very important because it helps you not only understand the
paragraph on the first reading, but also helps you to remember the content
later. The main idea of a paragraph is what the paragraph develops. An
efficient reader understands not only the ideas but also the relative
significance as expressed by the writer. An efficient reader understand not
only the ideas but also their relative significance, as expressed by the
author, in other words, some of the ideas as super ordinate while other
subordinate.
c.
Finding the meaning of vocabulary in context
It means that the
reader could develop his or her guessing ability to the word which is not
familiar with him or her, by relating the close meaning of unfamiliar words to
the text and the topic of the text that is read. The words have nearly
equivalent meaning when it has it or nearly the same meaning as another word.
d.
Identifying references
It means that, the
reader able to know the source of text and able to combine one resource with
other. It will be more accurate to read and learn by reader. It will guide the reader in the reading. In
the identifying reference have advantage to reader.
e.
Reference words
In English, as in
other language, it would be clumsy and boring to have and repeat the same word
or phrase every time you used it. Instead of repeating the same word or phrase
several times, after it has been used we can usually refer to it than repeat
it. For this purpose, we use reference words. Recognizing reference words and
being able to identify the word to which they refer to will help the reader
understand the reading passage. Reference words are usually short and very
frequently pronoun, such as; it, she, he, they, this, etc.
f.
Making inferences
Inference is a skill
where the reader has to be able to read between lines. King and Stanley divide
into two main attentions, draw logical inferences and make accurate prediction.
a.
Aspects
of Reading Comprehension
According to Miles A. Tinker and
Contance M. McCullough (in http://www.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/copywriting/2099897-definition-aspects-reading),
aspects of reading based on normal reading situation consist of three kinds.
They are word recognition, comprehension and reflections.
1.
Word recognition
The degree of
excellence in reading is determined, to a large extent, by the ability to
recognize and pronounce words. The core of view that reading is chiefly skill
in recognizing words can be accurate by the form of the word itself. Decoding
the printed page is one of examples of recognizing the oral equivalent of the
written symbol.
2.
Comprehension
Comprehension is one of
competence that must be had by the readers. Reading just is not transferring
the symbol printed from page to the brain but the readers have to comprehend
the content of the reader’s read. Comprehension in reading becomes important because
it makes the readers have meaningful in their reading. In other word, their
reading is not useless.
There are three levels of reading comprehension.
There are three levels of reading comprehension.
a.
Literal
reading
Literal
reading is the ability to know all of the directions in the text and also understand
exact words, meanings and characters.
b.
Aesthetic
reading
Aesthetic
reading is the ability to appreciate what the reader’s read before.
c.
Critical
reading
Critical
reading consists of making factual distinction between common ideas, facts and opinion.
This capability is needed for valid interpretation and analysis. It means that
the readers able to analyze what the reader’s read after.
c. Reflection
Many educators have
pointed out that word recognition and comprehension does not g, reading more
advantages for the readers when they apply what they read after. Globally, this
aspect involves comprehension and word recognition. Look, the process of
reading necessary to be able to hold ideas they occur and to conceptualize
meaningful interpretation through reflection. This process compares the written
stimuli with the reader’s experiences. From three aspects of reading above, the
writer hopes to the readers that all of the readers who read any book are
needed to know the aspects of reading. In order to make their reading more
meaningful, of course by comprehend all of those aspects above.
1. Descriptive
Text
a.
Defintion of
Descriptive Text
Descriptive writing is
a kind of writing that is used for describe about a person, object, appearance,
scenery, or phenomenon. Description can briefly explain and evolve about
process, compare, definitions, and other strategies. Descriptive text is a kind
of writing genre that first taught in the level junior high school a
descriptive text has functional objective to describe a particular person,
place, things (Depdiknas, 2006). Descriptive writing vividly explains about a
person, place, or thing which can make the reader as imagine it. Form the book
“Making sense of functional grammar” by Gerot and Wignell (1995, p.208) it is stated that descriptive text
is a kind of the text which is aimed to describe a particular person, place or
thing.
Meanwhile, Zahrowi
(2009, p. 9) defines descriptive text is a text which contains the explanation
of what person or thing is like. Descriptive text as a text which the
characteristics of something; it used in all form of writing to create a vivid
impression of person, place, object or event. Relates to this statement,
Anderson and Mark (as cited in Rina, 2010) state that a factual description
specifically used to describe a particular place, person or thing. Then, the
purpose of a descriptive text is to tell about the subject by describing its
features without including person opinions. Moreover, Anderson and Mark (as
cited in Rina, 2010) elaborate a factual description differs from an
information report because describe a specific subject rather than a general
group. For example: the description of a particular place or descriptions of a
specific person. Specifically, descriptive text in this research includes the
text that has the function to describe something or somebody in our daily life.
Descriptive text also has language features and the generic structure. Those
things make the descriptive text has certain characteristics that will different
from the other text genres as shown in table 1 as follow.
Table 1
The Genre Structure of Descriptive Text
|
Goal
|
Descriptive writing vividly portrays a
person, place, or thing in such a way that the reader can visualize the topic
and enter into the writer’s experience.
|
|
Characteristics
|
The general characteristics of descriptive writing include:
Elaborate use of sensory language:
a.
Rich, vivid, and lively detail
b.
Figurative language such as simile, hyperbole,
metaphor, symbolism and personification
c.
Showing, rather than telling though the use of
active verbs and precise modifiers
|
|
Uses
|
Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere and it often included
in other genre, such as in a descriptive introduction of a character in a
narrative
|
In a descriptive
writing, there are four kinds of descriptive texts that can be explored: first,
historical profile, providing an interesting accurate report about place,
times, or event. Second, venture profile, deeply reporting about occupation or
business. Third, reporting from interview, field observation, and other
research.
Forth, a case study
which is telling about someone experience for representing a cluster, for
example: the sacrifice of disaster, immigrant community, and the last, personal
research report; serve the story specifically about an observation which
entertaining you, it is can be about an usual hobby, new technology, etc.
(Alwasillah, 2005, p.114).
b. Language Features of Descriptive Text
Descriptive text has
the language features. Language features in a descriptive text can be
identified by the reader because it usually uses identifying process, adjective
and classifiers in nominal group and also simple present tense. Zahrowi (2009,
p. 25) mentions the dominant language features in a descriptive text as
follows:
1.
Descriptive
text usually uses simple present tense, action verbs, passive voice, noun
phrase, and adverb phrase, technical terms, general and abstract noun and also
conjunction and cause-effect.
2.
In
a paragraph of the descriptive text, it usually has an opening paragraph used
to introduce the subject of the description and then it is followed by a series
of paragraphs. Those paragraphs will describe one feature of the subject. It can
also be final concluding section that signals the end of the description.
Clearly, general opening statement in the first paragraph introduces the
subject of the description to the audience; it can give the audience brief
details about when, where, who or what of the subject.
3.
Then,
series of paragraphs discuss about the subject. It usually begins with a topic
sentence. The topic sentence previews details that will be contained in the
remainder of the paragraph. Those paragraphs build the description of the
subject.
4.
Last,
concluding paragraph can be an optional in a descriptive text. This paragraph
signals the end of the text (Anderson & Mark, 2003).
According to Djuhaire (2009, p.153), language features of descriptive text are:
1.
Using a specific noun and simple present tense.
2.
Using detailed noun phrases, a noun word that added
into adjective, medley kind of adjective that has quality of describing,
numbering, classifying, relational process.
3.
Using verbs described about condition of participant
and signal of propriety.
4.
Using figurative words as way to give compare
illustrations.
Whereas, Kistono et al. (2007, p.9), language feature of descriptive text
as follows:
a.
Focus on
specific participant.
The
examples: father, school, my dog, etc.
b.
Simple
present tense.
c.
Figurative
language, using figurative language such as simile or metaphor as a way to give
the illustration of comparison.
d.
Relational
process.
e.
The
variations of adjective (describing, numbering, classifying).
f.
Frequent
use of epithets and classifies in nominal group: the group of word that give
the explanation (modifier) toward the now. The example: an old man, a beautiful
girl, my mother, etc.
c. Example of Descriptive Text
|
Identification
Description
|
My Friend’s New Shoes
I
have a close Friend. She is beautiful, attractive and trendy. She always
wants to be a trend setter of the day. She always pays much attention on her
appearance. Recently, she bought a new stylist foot legs from blowfish shoes products. This shoes really matches on her.
Her
new blowfish women's shoes are wonderful. When she are walking on that
shoes, all her friends, including me watch and admire that she has the most
suitable shoes on her physical appearance. The style, bright color, and brand
represent her as a smart woman of the day. She really has perfect appearance.
She
is really mad on that shoes. She said that the products covered all genders.
The blowfish men's shoes are as elegant as she has. The products
provide varieties of choice. Ballet, casual, boot athletic shoes are designed
in attractive way. The products are international trader mark and become the
hottest trend.
Source: SMA
Students’ Module of English
|
B. Mind Mapping
1.
Concept
of Mind Mapping Technique
Readon and Nourie (as
cited in desi, 2009) notes that mind mapping is creative note-taking method,
which eases the learners to remember much information. The best mind mapping is
colorful and used much pictures and symbols; usually like an art.
Buzan (2008, p.1)
states that mind mapping is a powerful graphic technique, which provides a
universal key to unlock the potential of brain. Mind mapping technique imitates
the thinking process, namely possible us to move from one topic to another
topics back and forth. Recording the information through symbols, pictures,
emotional meaning and colors, exactly the same like our brains process it. A
pattern which at least consists of picture, symbol and color that will not just
help the students to understand the vocabulary knowledge but also makes the students
feel good, enjoyable and attract their brain which at last lead them to have
interest in mastery knowledge.
Hedge (as cited in
Desi, 2009) states making a mind map is a strategy for note-making, in other
words, scribbling down ideas about a topic and developing those ideas as the
mind makes associations.
Hayes (as cited in
Desi, 2009) states that through mind mapping students turns random thoughts
into patterns that can be written down and developed. Students become
increasingly motivated to complete a writing task as their ideas emerge in
organized forms. It can be seen from the next figure that in mind mapping ideas
presented in a radial, graphical, non-linear manner, so mind maps encourage a
brainstorming approach to planning and organizational tasks freely. Though the
branches of a mind map represent hierarchical tree structures, their radial
arrangement disrupts the prioritizing of concepts typically associated with
hierarchies presented with more linear visual cues. This orientation towards brainstorming
encourages users to enumerate and connect concepts without a tendency to begin
within a particular conceptual framework.
DePotter and Hernacki
(2008, p.153) states that mind mapping is the use of whole brains technique by
using the visualization and other graphic infrastructure to make an
impression”. Besides, mind mapping is one of techniques which can make the
students more enjoyable and interesting in studying reading.
Meanwhile, Murley
(2007, p. 79) states that mind maps are a non linear visual outline of complex
information that can aid creativity, organization, productivity, and memory. As
a radiant thinking process, mind mapping maximizes the potential ability of the
brain to memorize and organize ideas. Moreover, Murley also states that by
using mind mapping someone can show their ideas in a relational context
graphically. Mind mapping is effective to represent and rearrange ideas which
come on mind based on the explanation above. Making colorful symbols, pictures,
or lines can maximize the brain’s ability. In creating a mind mapping, the
people use both of the brain sides; the left side and the right side that can
make the process of memorizing and understanding the problem run easily. So it
can be a pleasures activity on the problem solving.
2.
The
Classification of Mind Mapping Technique
Trianto (2009, p.160)
describes that mind mapping can be distinguished into four kinds, namely:
a.
Network
Tree
The main ideas made in
a quadrangle and other words written in the connection line. It is suitable for
visualization (1) a cause and effect relation (2) a hierarchy, (3) branch
procedure, and (4) technical terms which can be used to explain some
correlations.
b.
Event
Chain
The event chain can be
used for giving an accident order, steps in a procedure, or steps in a process.
It is suitable for visualization (1) some steps in a process, (2) some steps in
a linier procedure, and (3) an accident order.
c.
Cycle
Concept Map
In this concept map,
the accident combination has no final result. It is suitable to show a
correlation how a combination accident is interacting to produce a group of
result repeatedly.
d.
Spider
Concept Map
The spider concept can
be used for sharing opinion from a central idea until get more various big
ideas. It is suitable to visualization (1) something which is not based on
hierarchy (2) a category which is not parallel, and (3) the result of sharing
opinion.
3.
Parts
of Mind Mapping Technique
According to Windura
(2008, p.77) there are some parts of mind mapping namely:
a. Central
Image
A central image has to
describe the main idea of a mind mapping and put it on the centre of the paper.
It is for activate the students’ right brain, strengthen the students’ memory
and make the learning activity enjoyable.
b. Key
Word
A key word is a word
that can lead a sentence or event. Identifying a familiar word in one’s own
language or another language that sounds like the new word and using only one
key word per line. It is as an urge to remember a lot of words for the students.
It is strong noun or verb that creates image to trigger recall the memory.
c. Basic
Ordering Ideas
Basic ordering ideas
are the branches that collect sort information and it connected to the central
topic that radiate out from the centre. Making basic ordering ideas which can
direct our mind to make mind mapping and it need creativity that encourage the
students to understand to the material. It is thick and thinner at the ends. It
can be seen as headings for your topic and spread anywhere but do not become steep.
d. Branches
The branches should be
curvy and in the same length as the words or pictures above it. These branches
can be seen as sub headings. It is thinner branches and containing details.
e. Color
Color is a very good
memory sign and it involves the right brain in learning for long term memory.
Colors encourage creativity and help in memorization. Adding plenty of colors
via branches, map background and images will add life to your mind map. It
makes easier to comprehend and remember.
f. Picture
In mind mapping,
pictures which can change or strengthen a key word that has been written
before.
4.
The
Advantages of Using Mind Mapping Technique
According to DePorter
and Hernacki (2008, p.172) there are some advantages of using mind mapping
technique, they are as follows:
a.
Flexible
Explaining
something can be easy without confusing in add the material based on the mind
mapping. We can put the label and category of something based on our own
opinion anywhere in the mind mapping.
b.
Concentrate on the topic
Getting
the subtopics what we talk about with focus on the main ideas easily. Keep
focus on the keyword can help us to make it simple and it does not waste the
time.
c.
Increasing comprehension
Using
mind mapping can make easy in understanding the material. Mind mapping is a
simple think pattern so it is not make us confuse to understand what we have
learned and easy to remember the material.
d.
Enjoyable
Imagination
and creativity are unlimited in using mind mapping, so it can be funny to
learn. By using pictures and colors, it makes the brain enjoy and excited in
thinking something what we want about the material.
5.
The
use of Mind Mapping in Teaching Reading
In teaching mind
mapping technique, Purwoko (as cited nin Desi, 2009) gives some direction, they
are:
Step
1: Make a central image in the centre of the paper. Color and add something
interesting.
Step 2: Draw
some basic ordering ideas, spread out from the central image.
Step 3: Thinking of all something interesting as
much as possible and funny for students and it can be connected with the
central image to
to give
the students the inspiration.
Step 4: Add some branches to the basic ordering
ideas using symbols, pictures, and colors as much as possible.
Step 5: Thinking of the details which are
interesting and it can encourage students’ curiosity and then add to the
students’ mind map.
Step 6: Continue it until the learners have adequate
information for your mind map.
C. Relevant study
The similar problem had
been investigated by Desi Ramayanti. She investigated about “The Use of Mind
Mapping Technique in Teaching Narrative Text to Improve Students’ Reading
Comprehension (Quasi-Experimental Research in the Eighth Grade Students in
academic year of 2008/2009). There were two research questions and were
formulated as follows: (1) Is using mind
mapping technique is effective in improving students’ reading comprehension on
narrative text? (2) What are the advantages and the disadvantages of using mind
mapping technique in reading narrative text?
There were two classes
selected as the sample. They were XIII-G class and XIII-F class, where the
experimental group was XIII-G class and the control group was XIII-F class.
Each class consisted of 30 students. Quasi-experimental design was used as the
research method. Besides, reading test and interview were conducted to obtain
the data.
After conducting the
treatments, the result showed that the technique could improve students reading
comprehension on narrative text as indicated by a statistically higher reading
score of experimental group students (M= 7.25, SE= 1.43) than control group
students (M= 6.27, SE= 1.57) in the posttest. This difference was highly
significant t (58) = 4.630, p < 0.05 with the effect size value r = 0.26.
Furthermore, the effectiveness
was also supported by students’ responses in the interview. Most of students
gave positive responses in the use of mind mapping technique in teaching
reading narrative text. The use of mind mapping helped the students comprehend
the story, increase their motivation, make them more creative and imaginative,
make it easier for them to remember the story, create fun learning, and save
the time.
The differences of
these studies were viewed from the grade subject of the study. Desi Ramayanti took
grade subjects for the seventh grade students at SMPN 3 Pujut in
academic year of 2008/2009 while the present researcher takes the eleventh graders of SMA 1 Praya Timur in the school year
2011/2012.
The similarities of
both researches were in investigating the main problem that is mind mapping technique and reading as the variables
in the investigation.
D. Theoretical Framework
Teaching reading especially in English is not an easy task to do and it can be said that reading is difficult.
It happens because the lack of consideration in applying the appropriate technique in
teaching learning process because reading is an important skill for students to equip them in education. Kennedy
(1981, p.5) states that reading is the ability of an individual to recognize a
visual form, associate the form with a sound and or meaning acquired in the
past, and on the basis of pas experience, understands and interpret its
meaning. In reading from books, it is usually necessary to recognize,
understand and interpret several words in a series.
Relates to the statement above, many efforts have been made to improve
the learners’ reading ability. Some of them are shown by the existence of books
and theories of reading and some books on reading exercise or learning to read.
However, the fact shows that many learners still encounter problems or
difficulties when they try to understand an English text (Cahyono, as cited in
Desi, 2009) In line with the statement above the present researcher
wants to investigate an appropriate technique namely mind mapping on reading
and this technique may help the students in reading especially reading
descriptive text. Buzan (as cited in Trianto, 2009) argues that the students
can learn an interesting way using certain technique which is called mind mapping. In the usage of mind mapping,
students not only use their left side of the brain to identify words but in the
same time they also use the right side of the brain in learning language.
They will have
opportunity to make some colorful pictures, lines, symbols or signs to help
them remember the words or the facts in their mind maps. Moreover, students
will get their own way in comprehending certain topic or material by using mind
mapping. It is because mind mapping itself as personal as our body. So, every
student will not feel depressed in understanding the material; they will learn
differently each other but at the end of the lesson they will get the same
comprehension.
Buzan (as cited in
Trianto, 2009) also states that by using mind mapping students can remember
well, make a better notes of their textbook, rise the idea, save the time to
understand the material and concentrate with the material. In addition, at the
end of the lesson, they will have ability to comprehend material in the textbook
well and also they can tell other people easily about their understanding of
certain topic using their own mind mapping.
E. Hypothesis
The hypothesis of this
study is formulated as follow “There is effect of mind mapping technique on
reading descriptive text for the eleventh
graders of SMA 1 Praya Timur in the
school year 2011/2012”.
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